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The science

Sources

Every octopus fact on this site comes from one of these 33 sources. We prefer peer-reviewed research and official sources. Spotted an error? Email science@octopedarian.com.

  1. Anderson, R. C., Mather, J. A., Monette, M. Q., & Zimsen, S. R. M. (2010). Octopuses (Enteroctopus dofleini) Recognize Individual Humans. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 13(3), 261–272. doi:10.1080/10888705.2010.483892
  2. Andrews, K., Birch, J., Sebo, J., et al. (signatories) (2024). The New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness. New York University. sites.google.com/nyu.edu/nydeclaration/declaration
  3. Azevedo, F. A. C., Carvalho, L. R. B., Grinberg, L. T., et al. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. Journal of Comparative Neurology 513(5), 532–541. doi:10.1002/cne.21974
  4. Birch, J., Burn, C., Schnell, A., Browning, H., & Crump, A. (2021). Review of the Evidence of Sentience in Cephalopod Molluscs and Decapod Crustaceans. London School of Economics and Political Science (report commissioned by the UK government). www.lse.ac.uk/News/News-Assets/PDFs/2021/Sentience-in-Cephalopod-Molluscs-and-Decapod-Crustaceans-Final-Report-November-2021.pdf
  5. Boal, J. G., Dunham, A. W., Williams, K. T., & Hanlon, R. T. (2000). Experimental evidence for spatial learning in octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides). Journal of Comparative Psychology 114(3), 246–252. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.114.3.246
  6. Crook, R. J. (2021). Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence suggests affective pain experience in octopus. iScience 24(3), 102229. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102229
  7. European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2010). Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. Official Journal of the European Union. eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2010/63/oj
  8. Finn, J. K., Tregenza, T., & Norman, M. D. (2009). Defensive tool use in a coconut-carrying octopus. Current Biology 19(23), R1069–R1070. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.10.052
  9. Fiorito, G., & Scotto, P. (1992). Observational Learning in Octopus vulgaris. Science 256(5056), 545–547. doi:10.1126/science.256.5056.545
  10. Fiorito, G., von Planta, C., & Scotto, P. (1990). Problem solving ability of Octopus vulgaris Lamarck (Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Behavioral and Neural Biology 53(2), 217–230. doi:10.1016/0163-1047(90)90441-8
  11. Hanlon, R. (2007). Cephalopod dynamic camouflage. Current Biology 17(11), R400–R404. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.034
  12. Hare, B., Brown, M., Williamson, C., & Tomasello, M. (2002). The Domestication of Social Cognition in Dogs. Science 298(5598), 1634–1636. doi:10.1126/science.1072702
  13. Hochner, B. (2012). An Embodied View of Octopus Neurobiology. Current Biology 22(20), R887–R892. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.001
  14. Jacquet, J., Franks, B., Godfrey-Smith, P., & Sánchez-Suárez, W. (2019). The Case Against Octopus Farming. Issues in Science and Technology 35(2). issues.org/the-case-against-octopus-farming/
  15. Jardim-Messeder, D., Lambert, K., Noctor, S., et al. (2017). Dogs Have the Most Neurons, Though Not the Largest Brain: Trade-Off between Body Mass and Number of Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex of Large Carnivoran Species. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 11, 118. doi:10.3389/fnana.2017.00118
  16. Kabadayi, C., & Osvath, M. (2017). Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering. Science 357(6347), 202–204. doi:10.1126/science.aam8138
  17. Kuba, M. J., Byrne, R. A., Meisel, D. V., & Mather, J. A. (2006). When do octopuses play? Effects of repeated testing, object type, age, and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris. Journal of Comparative Psychology 120(3), 184–190. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.184
  18. Mather, J. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1999). Exploration, play and habituation in octopuses (Octopus dofleini). Journal of Comparative Psychology 113(3), 333–338. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.113.3.333
  19. Mather, J. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1993). Personalities of octopuses (Octopus rubescens). Journal of Comparative Psychology 107(3), 336–340. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.107.3.336
  20. Medeiros, S. L. de S., Paiva, M. M. M. de, Lopes, P. H., Blanco, W., Lima, F. D. de, Oliveira, J. B. C. de, Medeiros, I. G., Sequerra, E. B., de Souza, S., Leite, T. S., & Ribeiro, S. (2021). Cyclic alternation of quiet and active sleep states in the octopus. iScience 24(4), 102223. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102223
  21. Norman, M. D., Finn, J., & Tregenza, T. (2001). Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 268(1478), 1755–1758. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708
  22. Olkowicz, S., Kocourek, M., Lučan, R. K., et al. (2016). Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain. PNAS 113(26), 7255–7260. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517131113
  23. Pophale, A., Shimizu, K., Mano, T., Iglesias, T. L., Martin, K., Hiroi, M., Asada, K., Andaluz, P. G., Van Dinh, T. T., Meshulam, L., & Reiter, S. (2023). Wake-like skin patterning and neural activity during octopus sleep. Nature 619(7968), 129–134. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06203-4
  24. Richter, J. N., Hochner, B., & Kuba, M. J. (2016). Pull or Push? Octopuses Solve a Puzzle Problem. PLOS ONE 11(3), e0152048. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152048
  25. Robison, B., Seibel, B., & Drazen, J. (2014). Deep-Sea Octopus (Graneledone boreopacifica) Conducts the Longest-Known Egg-Brooding Period of Any Animal. PLOS ONE 9(7), e103437. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103437
  26. Saito, A., Shinozuka, K., Ito, Y., & Hasegawa, T. (2019). Domestic cats (Felis catus) discriminate their names from other words. Scientific Reports 9, 5394. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-40616-4
  27. Schnell, A. K., Amodio, P., Boeckle, M., & Clayton, N. S. (2020). How intelligent is a cephalopod? Lessons from comparative cognition. Biological Reviews 96(1), 162–178. doi:10.1111/brv.12651
  28. Schnell, A. K., Boeckle, M., Rivera, M., Clayton, N. S., & Hanlon, R. T. (2021). Cuttlefish exert self-control in a delay of gratification task. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 288(1946), 20203161. doi:10.1098/rspb.2020.3161
  29. Schnell, A. K., Fein-Schaffer, D., Fritz, J., & Clayton, N. S. (2023). How Intelligent is an Octopus or a Cuttlefish? Even Smarter Than You Might Think!. Frontiers for Young Minds 11. doi:10.3389/frym.2023.977530
  30. Sumbre, G., Gutfreund, Y., Fiorito, G., Flash, T., & Hochner, B. (2001). Control of octopus arm extension by a peripheral motor program. Science 293(5536), 1845–1848. doi:10.1126/science.1060976
  31. UK Parliament (2022). Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022. legislation.gov.uk. www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/22/contents
  32. Watanabe, S., Sakamoto, J., & Wakita, M. (1995). Pigeons' discrimination of paintings by Monet and Picasso. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 63(2), 165–174. doi:10.1901/jeab.1995.63-165
  33. Wood, J. B., & Anderson, R. C. (2004). Interspecific Evaluation of Octopus Escape Behavior. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 7(2), 95–106. doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0702_2
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